photometric_stereo — Reconstruct a surface according to the photometric stereo technique.
photometric_stereo(Images : HeightField, Gradient, Albedo : Slants, Tilts, ResultType, ReconstructionMethod, GenParamName, GenParamValue : )
photometric_stereo can be used to separate the three-dimensional shape
of an object from its two-dimensional texture, e.g., its print image. The
operator requires at least three images of the same object taken with
different and known directions of illumination. Note, that the point of view
of the camera must be the same for all images.
The three-dimensional shape of the object is primarily computed as the local gradients of the three-dimensional surface. Those gradients can be further integrated to obtain a height field, i.e., an image in which the pixel values correspond to a relative height. The two-dimensional texture is called albedo and corresponds to the local light absorption and reflection characteristics of the surface exclusive of any shading effect.
Typical applications of photometric stereo
Typical applications of photometric stereo are to detect small inconsistencies in a surface that represent, e.g., defects, or to exclude the influence of the direction of light from images that are used, e.g., for the print inspection of non flat characters. Note that photometric stereo is not suitable for the reconstruction of absolute heights, i.e., it is no alternative to typical 3D reconstruction algorithms like depth from focus or sheet of light.
Limitations of photometric stereo
photometric_stereo is based on the algorithm of Woodham and
therefore assumes on the one hand that the camera performs an orthoscopic
projection. That is, you must use a telecentric lens or a lens with a long
focal distance. On the other hand, it assumes that each of the light sources
delivers a parallel and uniform beam of light. That is, you must use
telecentric illumination sources with uniform intensity or, as an
alternative, distant point light sources. Additionally, the object must have
Lambertian reflectance characteristics, i.e., it must reflect incoming light
in a diffuse way. Objects or regions of an object that have specular
reflectance characteristics (i.e., mirroring or glossy surfaces) cannot be
processed correctly and thus lead to erroneous results.
The acquisition setup
The camera with a telecentric lens must be placed orthogonally, i.e., perpendicular, to the scene that should be reconstructed. The orientation of the camera with respect to the scene must not change during the acquisition of the images. In contrast, the orientation of the illumination with respect to the camera must change for at least three gray value images.
Specifying the directions of illumination
For each image, the directions of illumination must be specified as angles
within the parameters Slants and Tilts, which describe the
direction of the illumination in relation to the scene. To understand the
meaning of the parameters Slants and Tilts, remember that
the illumination source is assumed to produce parallel light rays, the camera
has a telecentric lens, and the camera is placed orthogonal to the scene to
reconstruct:
SlantsSlants angle is the angle between the optical
axis of the camera and the direction of the illumination.
TiltsTilts angle is measured within the object plane or any plane
that is parallel to it, e.g., the image plane. In particular, it
describes the angle between the direction that points from the center
of the image to the right and the direction of light that is projected
into the plane. That is, when looking at the image (or the
corresponding scene), a tilt angle of 0 means that the light comes from
the right, a tilt angle of 90 means that the light is coming from the
top, a tilt angle of 180 means that the light is coming from the left,
etc.
As stated before, photometric stereo requires at least three images with different directions of illumination. However, the three-dimensional geometry of objects typically leads to shadow casting. In the shadow regions, the number of effectively available directions of illumination is reduced, which leads to ambiguities. To nevertheless get a robust result, redundancy is needed. Therefore, typically more than three light sources with different directions should be used. But note that an increasing number of illumination directions also leads to a higher number of images to be processed and therefore to a higher processing time. In most applications, a number of four to six light sources is reasonable. As a rule of thumb, the slant angles should be chosen between 30° and 60°. The tilt angles typically should be equally distributed around the object to be measured. Please note that the directions of illumination must be selected such that they do not lie in the same plane (i.e., the illumination directions must be independent), otherwise the computing fails and an exception is thrown.
Input images and domains of definition
The input images must be provided in an image array (Images). Each
image must have been taken with a different direction of illumination as
stated above. If the images are primarily stored in a multi-channel image,
they can be easily converted to an image array using
image_to_channels. As an alternative, the image array can be created
using concat_obj.
photometric_stereo relies on the evaluation of the "photometric
information", i.e., the gray values stored in the images. Therefore, this
information should be unbiased and accurate. We recommend to ensure that the
camera that is used to acquire the images has a linear characteristic. You
can use the operator radiometric_self_calibration to determine the
characteristic of your camera and the operator lut_trans to correct
the gray value information in case of a non linear
characteristic. Additionally, if accurate measurements are required, we
recommend to utilize the full dynamic range of the camera since this leads to
more accurate gray value information. For the same reason, using images with
a bit depth higher than 8 (e.g., uint2 images instead of byte images) leads
to a better accuracy.
The domain of definition of the input images determines which algorithm is
used internally to process the Images. Three algorithms are
available:
If all images have a full domain, the fastest algorithm is used. This mode is recommended for most applications.
If the input images share the same reduced domain of definition, only the pixels within the domain are processed. This mode can be used to exclude areas of the object from all images. Typically, areas are excluded that are known to show non-Lambertian reflectance characteristics or that are of no interest, e.g., holes in the surface.
If images with distinct domains of definition are provided, only the gray values that are contained in the domains are used in the respective images. Then, only those pixels are processed that have independent slant and tilt angles in at least three images. This mode is suitable, e.g., to exclude specific regions of individual images from the processing. These can be, e.g., areas of the object for which is known that they show non-Lambertian reflectance characteristics or regions for which is known that they contain biased photometric information, e.g., shadows. To exclude such regions leads to more accurate results. Please note that this last mode requires significantly more processing time than the modes that use the full domain or the same domain for all images.
Output images
The operator can return the images for the reconstructed Gradient, Albedo,
and the HeightField of the surface:
The Gradient image is a vector field that contains the
partial derivative of the surface. Note that Gradient can be
used as input to reconstruct_height_field_from_gradient. For
visualization purposes, instead of the surface gradients normalized
surface gradients can be returned. Then, ResultType must be
set to 'normalized_gradient' instead of
'gradient'. Here, the row and column components represent the
row and column components of the normalized surface gradient. If
ResultType is set to 'all', the default mode, i.e.,
'gradient' and not 'normalized_gradient' is used.
The Albedo image describes the ratio of reflected radiation
to incident radiation and has a value between one (white surface) and
zero (black surface). Thus, the albedo is a characteristic of the
surface. For example, for a printed surface it corresponds to the
print image exclusive of any influences of the incident light
(shading).
The HeightField image is an image in which the pixel values
correspond to a relative height.
By default, all of these iconic objects are returned, i.e., the parameter
ResultType is set to 'all'. In case that only some of these
results are needed, the parameter ResultType can be set to a tuple
specifying only the required results among the values 'gradient',
'albedo', and 'height_field'. Note that in certain
applications like surface inspection tasks only the Gradient or
Albedo images are required. Here, one can significantly increase the
processing speed by not reconstructing the surface, i.e., by passing only
'gradient' and 'albedo' but not 'height_field' to
ResultType.
Note that internally photometric_stereo first determines the gradient
values and, if required, integrates these values in order to obtain the
height field. This integration is performed by the same algorithms that are
provided by the operator reconstruct_height_field_from_gradient and
that can be controlled by the parameters ReconstructionMethod,
GenParamName, and GenParamValue. Please, refer to the
operator reconstruct_height_field_from_gradient for more information
on these parameters. If ResultType is set such that
'height_field' is not one of the results, the parameters
ReconstructionMethod, GenParamName, and
GenParamValue are ignored.
Note that photometric_stereo assumes square pixels. Additionally, it
assumes that the heights are computed on a lattice with step width 1 in
object space. If this is not the case, i.e., if the pixel size of the camera
projected into the object space differs from 1, the returned height values
must be multiplied by the actual step width (value of the pixel size
projected into the object space). The size of the pixel in object space is
computed by dividing the size of the pixel in the camera by the magnification
of the (telecentric) lens.
Images (input_object) singlechannelimage(-array) → object (byte / uint2)
Array with at least three input images with different directions of illumination.
HeightField (output_object) image → object (real)
Reconstructed height field.
Gradient (output_object) image → object (vector_field)
The gradient field of the surface.
Albedo (output_object) image → object (real)
The albedo of the surface.
Slants (input_control) angle.deg-array → (real / integer)
Angle between the camera and the direction of illumination (in degrees).
Default value: 45.0
Suggested values: 1.0, 5.0, 10.0, 20.0, 40.0, 60.0, 90.0
Typical range of values: 0.0
≤
Slants
≤
180.0 (lin)
Minimum increment: 0.01
Recommended increment: 10.0
Tilts (input_control) angle.deg-array → (real / integer)
Angle of the direction of illumination within the object plane (in degrees).
Default value: 45.0
Suggested values: 1.0, 5.0, 10.0, 20.0, 40.0, 60.0, 90.0
Typical range of values: 0.0
≤
Tilts
≤
360.0 (lin)
Minimum increment: 0.01
Recommended increment: 10.0
ResultType (input_control) string-array → (string)
Types of the requested results.
Default value: 'all'
List of values: [], 'albedo', 'all', 'gradient', 'height_field', 'normalized_gradient'
ReconstructionMethod (input_control) string → (string)
Type of the reconstruction method.
Default value: 'poisson'
List of values: 'fft_cyclic', 'poisson', 'rft_cyclic'
GenParamName (input_control) string-array → (string)
Names of the generic parameters.
Default value: []
List of values: 'caching', 'optimize_speed'
GenParamValue (input_control) integer-array → (integer / real / string)
Values of the generic parameters.
Default value: []
List of values: 'exhaustive', 'free_cache', 'no_cache', 'patient', 'standard', 'use_cache'
If the parameters are valid, photometric_stereo returns the
value 2 (H_MSG_TRUE). If necessary, an exception is raised.
3D Metrology